Student teacher ratio Essay Example for Free

Student teacher ratio Essay Introduction Policy makers nationwide, in the field of education, are concerned about the educational system, particularly with regards to the overall success of educational programs. Considerable research has suggested that, compared to their Asian and European counterparts, American students, especially at the secondary level, do not perform as well (Ehrenberg, Brewer, Gamoran Willms, 2001). Given the evidence in support of this observation, policy makers have set out to examine the weaknesses in the system so that improvements can be made in deficient areas. One of the issues that have continued to figure at the forefront of debates is the matter of the student-teacher ratio. Researchers are concerned about the potential effects it may have on student performance and achievement (Borland, Howsen Trawick, 2005, p. 73). Gursky in 1998 indicated that adjusting class size was probably the most â€Å"popular educational initiative across the country (p. 16). At that time school districts across the nation were seeking to implement mandated policies on the required size of classes. President Clinton, in that same year, demonstrated his commitment to improving educational programs when he proposed in his State of the Union address that $12 billion be invested over a seven year period into programs geared at reducing the class size in the lower grades. This, he suggested, would be accomplished through the hiring of about 100, 000 additional teachers (Gursky, 1998). President Clinton’s position reflects that held by some analysts in education who believe that increasing and improving inputs into the educational system is a useful way of impacting student performance. Inputs, on the part of administrators or government, are usually classified in terms of finances or resources. Adjusting the student-teacher ratio or government spending on education, for example, are some of the means by which policy makers have tackled the issue of student achievement (Lamdin, 1995). This is based on the hypothesis that student achievement, as measured by their performance on standardized instruments, is dependent on and determined by the resources invested into the educational institutions, the student-teacher ratio being one of the most important and noted investments (Graddy Stevens, 2005). Student achievement in these contexts is usually measured solely or primarily on the basis of performance on standardized test instruments. However student performance on tests is not the only way of determining achievement. Dustmann, Rajah van Soest (2003) examine achievement in a broader context. They consider that the decision to pursue further education after completing high school could be considered an aspect of student achievement. Therefore school continuation after completing high school could also be a measure of learning. This is, as the literature demonstrates, that individuals who pursue higher education and thereby obtain higher qualifications earn significantly more than individuals simply completing high school (Colorado Association, n. d. ). According to statistics reported by the U. S. Census Bureau in 2004 persons who drop out of high school earn, on average, $19, 169 annually, those graduating high school earn $28, 645, college graduates earn $51, 554 and those with advanced degrees earn $78, 093 (as cited in Colorado Association, n. d. ). Considerations on student achievement should therefore not be restricted to scores on standardized instruments but should take into other factors which demonstrate, in the long run, that the educational system has been of benefit to the student. It is therefore not strange that policy makers wish to improve student performance. The option of reducing class sizes is probably, indeed, one of the most popular governmental initiatives geared at impacting student performance. By reducing class sizes the government is able to increase the resources available to individual schools and districts (Dustmann et al. , 2003, p. F99). Thus, the rationale for reducing class size, according to researchers, is that it is a tool for school improvement. Governments have tended to adopt this strategy because, according to Dustmann (2003), these programs are visible to voters and comparatively easy to implement and not necessarily based on research which demonstrates that this strategy is indeed effective in improving student performance. Though much research has gone into the issue it is still debated whether or not the student-teacher ratio shares a direct relationship with student performance. Not only in the United States but also in the United Kingdom the supporting arguments from either side are equally as weighty (Graddy Stevens, 2005) and it is still disputed whether or not reducing class sizes has a noticeable effect on student achievement (Dustmann et al. , 2003, p. F99). The merits of smaller classes There are many arguments put forward that a smaller class size is more beneficial. Among the arguments some propose that smaller classes are better in terms of discipline (Gursky, 1998). Having fewer students in the classroom means that there will be less noise and also a less disruptive behavior (Ehrenberg, Brewer, Gamoran Willms, 2001). Another argument put forward for smaller class sizes is that the teacher has greater opportunities to provide individualized instruction for the students in the classroom (Gursky, 1998). In this way teachers can provided needed assistance to struggling students as there is less demand on his/her time due to the lower number of pupils. Teachers are in a better position to familiarize themselves with all the students in the class in order to develop a greater understanding of their strengths, weaknesses, challenges, learning styles etcetera, and make the necessary accommodations to ensure each child is successful in the regular classroom. Instructional variety has been one of those topics that have been heavily debated, especially given that more and more culturally diverse students are entering the classroom. With the new mandates under the No Child Left Behind policy all students are expected to perform to the same level at the end of the year, regardless of learning, cognitive or other difficulties. In a smaller classroom the teacher is able to manipulate stimulus material to gain the interest of the cross section of pupils, adopt varied teaching strategies, provide for greater in-class interaction of pupils and overall free up time for the teacher to complete activities in the classroom that are often constrained because of time and class size (Ehrenberg, 2001). The benefits of smaller classrooms thus illuminated seem overwhelming. However, considering that research has not been conducted to justify these claims they are really superfluous (Ehrenberg et al. , 2001). Until a consensus has been made on the place of smaller class sizes in the educational system, it is hasty to matter-of-factly say that these benefits are automatic with smaller classes and reduced student-teacher ratios.

The element copper

The element copper Introduction Copper, elemental symbol Cu, is a transition d-block metal, and is the least reactive of the first row metals. Copper can have the oxidation states +1 and +2 and can form many complexes with various ligands. The Cu 2+ ion, at low concentrations, is an essential element to plant and animal life, and a human adult has a required daily intake of 3-5mg. [1] The richest nutritional sources of copper are; animal livers, shellfish, dried fruit, nuts and chocolate. [2] A human who lacks copper can develop a deficiency and in some cases this can result in anaemia, and Wilsons disease (copper accumulates in tissues which leads to neurological symptoms and liver disease). [1] A human adult contains roughly 100mg of copper, [1] most of which are attached to proteins and found in tissues, with high concentrations found in the liver and muscles. Eventhough copper is very useful, and required for a variety of process, for example; formation of haemocyanin (oxygen carrying proteins in molluscs), at high concentrations copper ions can be toxic and harmful. To avoid copper-induced toxicity most organisms use a combination of copper-regulated import inhibition and extraction of copper through specific export mechanisms. In mammals, copper is partially detoxified by sequestration in the metal- binding metallothioneins or export via the copper-translocating ATPases. [3] Use of copper in the human body and cells Copper has many roles in the human body and it plays a vital role in a range of chemical reactions that are essential to human health and development. Copper is distributed to several areas in the body so it can be used in various ways. Copper plays a major part in the conversion of iron to its useable Fe (III) form and also helps transport iron around the body. Copper is needed for the synthesis of collagen, a protein found in human skin, which maintains elasticity. [4] As a cofactor for the enzyme tyrosinase; copper is involved in the synthesis of the skin pigment melanin. Copper is also key for the development of the brain and nervous system as it plays a role in the production and maintenance of myelin, which insulates nerve cells thus ensuring the transmission of nerve impulses. Copper is also involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters, chemicals that allow communication between nerve cells. [5] Within cells the generation of energy (ATP), inside the mitochondria, depends on the involvement of a copper-containing enzyme. [4] Another vital function for the copper as a cofactor is the neutralisation of free radicals that would otherwise oxidise and destroy healthy cells. [6] More specific examples; Cytochrome c oxidase The enzyme cytochrome c oxidase, a large transmembrane protein complex found in the mitochondrion, is the last enzyme in the respiratory electron transport chain. It contains two heme centres called cytochromes a and a3, as well as two copper atoms. The copper sites, CuA and CuB, are associated with cytochromes a and a3, respectively. CuA is liganded by two cysteines and two histidines (Fig 1.0). The heme of cytochrome a is liganded by imidazole rings of histidine residues. CuB and the iron atom of cytochrome a3 are located close to each other and this closely coupled pair of metal ions is referred to as a binuclear centre (Fig 1.1). [7] [8] The copper sites play a part in electron transfer by switching between the Cu- state and the Cu2+ state. Reduction of one oxygen molecule requires passage of four electrons through carriers. Electrons from cytochrome c are transferred to CuA sites and then passed to the heme iron of cytochrome a. The electron pathway continues as CuB accepts a single electron from cytochrome a. A second electron then reduces the iron centre to Fe2+, leading to the binding of O2 and the formation of a peroxy bridge between heme a3 and CuB. This amounts to the transfer of two electrons from the binuclear centre to the bound O2. The next step involves uptake of two H+ and a third electron, which leads to cleavage of the O-O bond and generation of Fe4+ at the heme. Uptake of a fourth e- facilitates formation of ferric hydroxide at the heme centre. In the final step of the cycle, protons from the mitochondrial matrix are accepted by the coordinated hydroxyl groups, and the resulting water molecules dissoc iate from the binuclear centre. [9] Summary reaction: 4 Fe2+ -cytochrome c + 8 H+ + O2 ? 4 Fe3+ -cytochrome c + 2 H2O + 4 H+ [7] Haemocyanin Hemocyanins are a type of respiratory protein in the form of metalloproteins containing two copper atoms. The deoxy-form of a haemocynin is colourless and contains Cu (I), while O2 binding results in the blue Cu (II) form. [10] Hemocyanins carry oxygen in the blood of some molluscs (e.g. snails, whelks) and some arthropods including crabs and lobsters. They are second only to haemoglobin in biological popularity of use in oxygen transport. Hemocyanins are found suspended in the hemolymph, and arent bound to blood cells like haemoglobin. [11] Contained within the metalloprotein are two neighbouring non-bonded Cu (I) centres, each of which is bound by three histidine residues. [11] Fig 1.2 shows the binding of oxygen in relation to the copper sites. Tyrosinase Tyrosinase is an enzyme, which contains copper, and is present in plant and animal tissues that catalyzes the production of melanin and other pigments from tyrosine. [12] The reaction includes the reduction of the copper by an o-dipfenol. This reaction is followed by reaction of the intermediate with dioxygen to yield a highly reactive intermediate complex that is broken down by the substrate to form water and the required product. [2] Catechol oxidase Catechol oxidase is a copper-containing enzyme whose activity is like that of tyrosinase. Catechol oxidase carries out the oxidation of phenols such as catechol, using dioxygen. In the presence of catechol, benzoquinone is formed (reaction below). [14] In this reaction hydrogens are removed from catechol and combine with oxygen to form a molecule of water. Superoxide Dismutase One of the most important enzymes involved in removing free radicals from the human body is superoxide dismutase (SOD). Its function is to defend and protect cells against molecular damage from oxygen. SOD is located in two places within the cells, the mitochondria and the cytoplasm. The SOD that is found in the mitochondria contains manganese, and the SOD found in the cytoplasm contains copper and zinc. [15] This enzyme catalyzes the dismutation, (a reaction involving a single substance but producing two products), [16] of superoxide into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. For each two superoxides that are encountered by the SOD, one hydrogen peroxide is formed. One molecule of super oxide has their extra electron removed by SOD, and places it on the other super oxide molecule. [17] Therefore one ends up with one less electron, forming normal oxygen, and the other ends up with an extra electron. [15] The superoxide molecule, with the extra electron, then quickly picks up two hydrogen ion s to form hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is a dangerous compound, as it transforms easily into the reactive hydroxyl radical, so the cell uses the enzyme catalase to detoxify it, producing water and oxygen. [15] An example of a reaction of an SOD protein containing copper; Cu2 + SOD- + O2- Ã   Cu1 + SOD- +O2 Cu1 + SOD- +O2- +2H+ Ã   Cu2 + SOD + H202. In this reaction the oxidation state of the copper changes between +1 and +2. [15] Toxicity of copper At high concentrations copper can be toxic to the human body and to cells. Problems can also develop if the body doesnt have enough copper or the copper cant be efficiently used within the human body. [18] People can have three different copper imbalances, which can make a person; copper-toxic, copper-deficient, or develop a condition called biounavailable copper. People who are fast oxidisers need more copper in theirs bodies. Slow oxidisers often have excessive copper in their bodies, therefore more prone to copper imbalance. [18] Biounavailable copper refers to when copper is in excess in the body, but it cannot be utilized well. Biounavailability often occurs due to a deficiency of the copper-binding proteins, metallothionein. Without sufficient binding proteins, copper ions may flow around the body, where it may gather in the liver and brain. [18] Copper has certain places where it accumulates in the body referred to as target organs, these are, the liver first, then the brain. Copper may affect any organ or system of the body. However, it usually affects major systems and organs like; the nervous system, connective tissues such as hair, skin and nails and organs like the liver. [18] How do cells protect themselves against copper toxicity? Metallothioneins Figure 1Cells control the movement of copper across its membranes, maintaining the amount needed for biological functions while avoiding excess toxic levels. [19] Among the many factors required to achieve this equilibrium of highly toxic levels and the amount needed, are the metallochaperones, a family of proteins that transfers metal ions to specific intracellular locations where metalloenzymes bind to the metal ions and use them as cofactors to carry out essential biochemical reactions. [9] Knowledge of the transportation of copper to its final destination has increased with the identification of two proteins involved in Cu trafficking in yeast: Atx1 and Cox17. [20] The uptake of Cu in yeast starts with reduction by a plasma membrane reductase. The reduced copper is then transported across the membrane by the Cu transporter Ctrl. Three different proteins transport Cu from Ctrl to three different locations within the cell: Cox17, takes Cu to the mitochondria for incorporation into the cytochrome c oxidase (Sco); Ccs targets Cu to CuZnSOD, a primary antioxidant enzyme; and Atx1 directs Cu to a post-Golgi compartment, by way of Ccc2, a P-type ATPase transmembrane Cu transporter, for final insertion into Fet3, a multicopper oxidase. [20] The Cu transport mechanisms described, in figure 1.4, are active when concentrations of copper are low, and some arent used/ needed when the concentration of copper is very high in the medium. Therefore, yeast strains missing the gene for C ox17 cannot respire in normal growth media because CCO is Cu deficient, but are rescued when the medium is made 0.4% CuSO4. [20] Increasing the Cu concentration in the medium means Cu can be delivered to the Fet3 oxidase in yeast strains missing the gene for Atx1. These results show that Cox17 or Atx1 is required for proper Cu trafficking when Cu levels are high and that their presence is not required to detoxify Cu. [9] Cu-ATPases ATPase pumps are involved in the movement and translocation of ions (Na+, K+), and a variety of metal ions such as copper. The pumps that translocate metal ions are referred to as P-type ATPases. These Ptype ATPases, including the copper ATPases, are highly conserved from bacteria to humans. The Menkes ATPase translocase (MNK) is largely involved in the transfer and detoxification, of copper ions. Defects in this P-type pump lead to a fatal copper-deficiency disease in humans called Menkes syndrome. MNKs activity appears to be regulated by the metal it exports, copper. The composition and sequence of the metal binding domain of the Menkes ATPase (MNKr) is distinct from metallothioneins, which have major folds organized or stabilized by Cu (I) ions. The Menkes protein functions to export excess copper and is reversibly metalloregulated through the specialized copper-binding sites in the amino end of the protein. The metalloregulation couples the cellular export of copper to the intrac ellular concentration of copper ions. [3] Conclusion As seen in this report copper is very useful and needed in the body for a variety of different reactions and functions. Its a key part of many enzymes such as; cytochrome c oxidase, Tyrosinase, Catechol oxidase and superoxide dismutase. Therefore copper is a key role in the formation of cellular energy (ATP), using cytochrome c oxidase in the electron transport chain. Copper also plays a key role in the production of myelin and neurotransmitters and therefore is essential in the development of the nervous system. Another way in which copper has been proven to be important in the human body is in the production of melanin and collagen, essential proteins in the skin. However this report has shown that at high levels copper can be toxic and can cause problems within the human body. Copper can accumulate within vital organs and affect and damage major systems. To tackle this problem of accumulation cells contain unique proteins within their membranes that help regulate and remove copper, from inside the cell, if the levels are becoming excessive. These proteins are called metallothioneins and have specific binding sites for copper atoms (and other mineral/metals) to attach to. The mechanism, of the uptake and removal, is complicated and involves the transfer of copper ions between certain proteins along three different pathways. These methods are outlined in this report. References Chemistry of the Elements 2nd Edition, N N Greenwood and A Earnshaw, Butterworth Heinemann Biological Roles of Copper, Ciba Foundation Symposium 79 (new series) 1980 www.ajcn.org http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk www.anyvitamins.com/copper www.vitamins-nutrution.org http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytochrome_c_oxidase http://metallo.scripps.edu www.jbc.org www.hull.ac.uk/chemistry/bioinorganic http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemocyanin http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrosinase www.science-projects.com/Tyrosinase.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catechol_oxidase www.whyweage.com www.mondofacto.com www.rcsb.org www.drlwilson.com/articles/copper_toxicity_syndrome.htm Science Magazine 1999, Volume 284, pages 748-749 Science Magazine 1997, volume 278, pages 817-818

Home Guard in Britain 1940-1944

Home Guard in Britain 1940-1944 The Home Guard in Britain 1940-1944: Simply Dads Army or Valuable Fighting Force On the night of 14th May, 1940, Anthony Eden, then in his role as Foreign Secretary, made his first speech as Secretary of State for War, in part broadcasting a message asking for volunteers for the LDV (Local Defence Volunteers): We want large numbers of such men in Great Britain who are British subjects, between the ages of seventeen and sixty-five, to come forward now and offer their services in order to make assurance [that an invasion would be repelled] doubly sure. The name of the new force which is now to be raised will be the Local Defence Volunteers. This name describes its duties in three words. You will not be paid, but you will receive uniforms and will be armed. In order to volunteer, what you have to do is give your name at your local police station, and then, when we want you, we will let you know (Arthur, 2004) The Home Guard was formed when there was a clear and present threat of invasion by the German forces. Britain had watched from the relatively safety of its island position as many European countries succumbed to the Blitzkrieg, culminating in the devastating occupation of France. Most British men who could fight were already in the forces, those that were left were either too young, too old, or in reserved occupations vital to the war effort, however, many possessed the desire to in some way play an active role in Britain’s defences. Neither Churchill nor his government had previously shown any enthusiasm for policy which involved a civilian militia, fearing imminent invasion, being allowed to actively arm themselves and possess the right to confront, detain, arrest and even attack the enemy on British soil, instead of relying on the orthodox forces of security and public order from the police and the regular army. When reports began reaching the War Office regarding the disturbing appearance up and down the country of bands of civiliansarming themselves with shotguns (Steele,2003), it had been clear that the government needed to address this very real public concern. It is still unclear whether the aim was to support and nourish this burgeoning grass-roots activism, or to restrain and curb the unofficial, unsanctioned and technically illegal actions which may result from unregulated, armed civilians under the grip of fear from invaders. Nonetheless, Eden and his advisors proceeded to improvise the initial plans to endorse a civilian defence force and, as one observer put it, thus evoked a new army out of nothingness (Carroll, 1999). The publicly released rationale for the formation of the Home Guard, though vague, made references to delaying an enemy invasion force for as long as possible, thereby giving the Government and the regular army the crucial time to form a front line from which the enemy invasion could be repelled. When they were first formed, under the epithet of the Local Defence Volunteers, the Home Guard were allegedly expected to fight highly trained, well-armed German troops using nothing but shotguns, old hunting rifles, museum pieces, and a collection of unorthodox, makeshift weaponry involving pikes, sawn-off shotguns and Molotov cocktails (MacKenzie, 1995). Subsequently, these unconventional arms were officially sanctioned unintentionally, following an instruction from Winston Churchill to the War Office, in 1941, that â€Å"every man must have a weapon of some kind, be it only a mace or pike. â€Å"Initially intended to focus efforts towards the appropriate equipping of the Home Guard, this instruction was unfortunately interpreted literally, and resulted in the War Office ordering the production of250,000 long metal tubes, including gas pipe, with surplus sword bayonets welded in one end (Carroll, 1999). The issue of the pikes generated an almost universal feeling of anger and disgust from the ranks of the Home Guard, demoralised the men and led to questions being asked in both Houses of Parliament. In many instances the pikes never left Home Guard stores as area and unit commanders were aware of how the men would react (Steele, 2003). However, this incident illustrates the conflicting appreciation of the capabilities and value of the Home Guard from Churchill and his wartime Cabinet. While Churchill appeared, both officially and unofficially, to acknowledge the driving need of some civilians to actively participate in practical defence strategies, the War Office continually conveyed its view that the Home Guard was nothing more than a hobbyist faction of retired soldiers, to be tolerated, humoured and indulged without expending valuable resources, time or effort better served towards the regular army. Winston Churchill, in contrast, saw the Home Guard as an example of the British resolve, seen, in part, by his changing their title, in the summer of1940, from Local Defence Volunteers to the more proactive, aggressive-sounding name of Home Guard. The Home Guard exemplified the â€Å"nation at arms ideal, and it was hoped that the presence of the Home Guard would send a signal to both the United States and Germany that the British would indeed fight German invaders on the beaches, fields, and streets. Whether deliberately or unintentionally, the reputation of the Home Guard as an amateurish, unprofessional and crude mismatched collection of elderly soldiers ineffectually attempting to defend the country was only exacerbated by the War Office’s apparent deficiency of any comprehensive planning with regards to the logistics of such a defence force. The Local Defence Volunteers was launched without any staff, or designated funds and premises of its own. Listeners to Eden’s broadcasting the spring of 1940 had only the scantest of instructions to follow, to hand in their names at a local police station and wait to be called upon. In agreement with the popular post-war public and media opinion, the wartime reality was shambolic. Eden’s message was considerably more welcome by the British populace than the government may have realised, and, before the broadcast had ended, police stations in all regions of the nation were deluged with eager volunteers. By May 15th, twenty-four hours after the initial broadcast, 250,000 men had registered their names, a number which equalled the peacetime Regular Army (Calder,1969). Officially, it was the intention of the government that this new defence force would only accept citizens within the age range of 17 to65, however, this was not strictly enforced in the early stages of the development of the Home Guard, and several pensioners, such as Alexander Taylor, a sprightly octogenarian who had first seen action in the Sudan during 1884-5, contrived to serve (MacKenzie, 1995). Membership continued to grow at a remarkably rapid rate, and by the end of May, 1940, the total number of volunteers had risen to between300,000 and 400,000. By the end of the following month registered volunteers exceeded 1,400,000, a number approximating 1,200,000 more than any of the Whitehall bureaucrats had anticipated (Donnelly, 1999).The majority of new recruits were forced to wait several weeks before official uniforms were sent out, and even when they arrived many were missing essential elements. In many instances, the denims came without the caps, or vice versa, and the volunteers were resigned to donning armbands in an attempt to differentiate between Home Guard and other civilians. While the uniforms were necessary to impart a sense of coherency and organisation, however, the most frustrating aspect of the initial Home Guard involved the severe lack of equipment’s and weapons. The men, who had been called upon at a time when both the government and the public were in experiencing the fear of imminent and overwhelming invasion by the German army, were now facing the possibility of having to defend king and country armed only with homemade or debilitated weaponry. While the War Office searched for suitable arms from abroad, the eager volunteers proceeded to improvise, with rolled umbrellas, broom handles and golf clubs adapted for military service, and all kinds of antique fowling-pieces, blunderbusses, carbines and cutlasses dusted down for action (Smith,2000). The Home Guard was eventually issued with more conventional weapons, but these also had their problems, with many having first been issued to the British Army in World War One. The British infantry rifle of World War One, the .303 SMLE, was issued to the Home Guard, and in addition, a number of World War One era P14 and P17 rifles were also supplied from the US and Canada later that first summer. The P14 andP17 looked almost identical, the only real difference being that theP14 took the SMLE .303 ammunition whilst the P17 took the American.30 (30-06) ammunition. To prevent accidents, the P17 had a red band painted on it to identify the 30-06 calibre. Eventually, the War Office supplied Home Guard units with such cheaply-made devices as the Stengel and the North over projector. The Stem gun experienced a pitiable reputation among the Home Guard volunteers, and was summarised by one resigned volunteer as a spout, a handle and a tin box (Carroll,1999). Similarly, the North over projector, which fired grenades with the aid of a toy pistol cap and a black powder charge, in addition to being considered unsafe for the user, was likened to a large drainpipe mounted on twin legs (Steele, 2003). With such a chaotic start, it is scarcely surprising that the first enthusiasm of the volunteers quickly waned. The lack of uniforms, weapons and training syllabus resulted in the majority of the public, Home Guard volunteers and civilians alike, questioning the Government’s commitment to the defence force. These problems were exacerbated by the nature of the Home Guard membership as a high proportion of the volunteers had previously seen service in war, World War One and the Spanish Civil War among others. Former officers enlisted as Home Guard soldiers, for example, the Kensington-Belgravia unit had some eight retired generals in its ranks (Long mate, 1974), and these decorated, experienced officers were not hesitant in indicating the shortcomings of higher authority. It rapidly became apparent that the Government, in responding to one political difficulty, the need to respond to invasion fear, had created a new, more articulate and influential pressure group. In its formative months, the LDV may have had virtually no comprehensive military utility, but it carried great political weight and was not restricted by the normal restraints of military hierarchy. Matters became so difficult, potentially damaging to British morale at home and reputation abroad, that Churchill focused on the new force. His personal interest, in turn, became problematic for those charged with bringing it into being, and documentary evidence indicates prolonged arguments between Churchill and Eden. Although Churchill forced through, against considerable opposition, a change in name from Local Defence Volunteers to the Home Guard, he also gave priority to uniforms and weapons and assisted the Home Guard in becoming a more cohesive, structured fighting force. The feelings of frustration, however, never faded: too many men, for too long a time, found themselves continually mismanaged and poorly equipped, many using unfamiliar, makeshift and unorthodox firearms forth duration of the war. The enduring image of Britains home guard defences during World War Two remains that of Dads Army; an amateurish and uncoordinated operation staffed largely by old men and incompetents (Donnelly, 1999). To some extent the image from the classic 1970s comedy television series reasonably reflects Britain ‘slack of preparedness for hostilities in June 1940. But by the middle of1941 the British mainland was virtually a fortress, with a public mentality of confronting the enemy in any guise he chooses. However, The Dads Army image is a false one: had German forces managed to cross the channel in 1941, they would have found considerable resistance on British soil, their passage effectively blocked in many locations, and would have faced unorthodox and unfam iliar weaponry in the hands of determined, experienced and highly indomitable civilians. Chapter 2 Historiography The study of World War Two is extensive, and has been comprehensively researched and analysed for many decades. Less well-documented, however, is the Home Guard, with only a select number of influential texts available for scrutiny. The Home Guard is, primarily, discussed as part of a greater abstraction of the Second World War; a review of the military, or a generic analysis of the Home Front. Less common is the committed and detailed account of the Home Guard and its effect during the war. Similarly, those literature pieces that do exist appear to focus, predominantly, on the related shortfalls of the contemporary government, the lack of equipment and the disorganised structure of the volunteer units. An example of this can be seen in Graham McCann’s Dads Army: The Story of a Classic Television Show. McCann approaches the comparison of the real and fictional Home Guards in a relatively derogatory fashion, implying throughout that the volunteers stood very little chance against any official invading army. The implication throughout this text is that the fictional Dad’s Army bore more than a passing resemblance to the real Home Guard; a collection of ill-equipped, elderly men who fortunately never faced combat on home soil. The Home Guard is presented here as comical and ineffectual, and McCann insists that ‘if Hitler had invaded in strength, it is unlikely that the Home Guard, casting around for lengths of tram line to incapacitate tanks, or hurling lethal glassware at motor-cyclists, would have lasted long’(McCann, 2002). As the initial fear of invasion receded, the Home Guard was left with fewer bridges and reservoirs to guard and fewer checkpoints to control, and McCann focuses on the mistakes of the Home Guard, regaling the fatal challenges at Home Guard checkpoints during the ‘early nervous days’ (McCann, 2002)). As such, McCann’s presentation of the value of the Home Guard relies predominantly on the Civil Defence projects in blitzed cities, and the manning faint-aircraft guns by ‘some of the more able-bodied’ of the volunteers, allowing them to finally engage the enemy ‘if only at five miles up’(McCann, 2002). Though McCann concedes that the Home Guard volunteers numbered 1,793,000 at its peak, that a total of 1206 volunteers were either killed on duty or died from wounds, and that the unit had nationally been awarded two George Crosses and thirteen George Medals, the overall presentation of this section of British history is remarkably disparaging. Relatively few references are made towards thematic-tier purposes of the Home Guard, the bravery of the volunteers or the successes during a substantially stressful and tumultuous period for British citizens. Comparatively, Simon Mackenzie’s analysis of the Home Guard during World War Two contrasts markedly with the Dad’s Army view of the volunteers. In his publication The Home Guard: A Military and Political History (2005), MacKenzie recognises that the Home Guard during the Second World War entered the memory of that nation more through a BBC television comedy than reality, however, his intention to reintroduce the reality of the World War II Home Guard to the national conscience is admirable. MacKenzie traces the Home Guard from its origins as locally organized militia groups preparing to meet the invader, through its evolution into a component of His Majestys forces, and its final disbandment at the end of the war, and also includes the re-creation of the Home Guard for domestic service in response to the growing threat from the Soviet Union during the 1950s. The result is a mostly political history of support and opposition of the Home Guard in British society and government. By the time that the Home Guard is unreasonable military order and has a better allocation of weapons, Mackenzie asserts, the threat of invasion has totally passed. The problem then existed in how the government was to keep the members motivated. Documenting arguments in Cabinet about the diversion of 1.8million men to playing soldiers when the country desperately needs to increase industrial production, MacKenzie is generous in his conclusions, believing that the advantages to national morale and there leasing of regular soldiers from guarding duties outweighed the costs. He accepts that there is no evidence to show the existence of the Home Guard had any effect on German invasion plans, and to many it will seem that Mackenzie’s catalogue of muddled professional advice, political posturing and misallocation of scarce resources during a war of survival is a lesson for the future. His concluding section on the short-lived successor Home Guard of the early 50s suggests that few of the lessons had been learned. While MacKenzie concedes that the men of the Home Guard were never given an opportunity to prove themselves in battle, and that there are many more distinguished units that had actual disasters in war, the television comedy series Dads Army virtually destroyed the post-war reputation of a dedicated home defence organisation. Events commemorating the Home Guard war effort are scarce, and Mackenzie claims that it seems Churchill was mistaken in forecasting that: â€Å"History will say that your share in the greatest of all our struggles for freedom was a vitally important one. Professor MacKenzie has written a serious analysis of the policy history of the Home Guard. Inman ways this well-researched, cross-referenced, academic study shows that the saga of this volunteer force was funnier and more confused than any scriptwriter could invent. Yet the topic is an important one, not just for the historian but also for todays military planner, particularly with regard to the allocation of priorities made between the front line combat forces and this last ditch defending army of civilians, the sensibility of the operational concept, and the existence of such a force having a deterrent effect on the enemy. MacKenzie, as an American professor, compares and contrasts the British Home Guard with their American counterparts, and a primary similarity involved the general lack of opportunities to confront the German invaders. The British Home Guard did, however, become heavily involved in the less glamorous but nevertheless necessary work of civil defense and manning anti-aircraft weapons. Despite Mackenzie’s contention that the Home Guard existed more out of political than military necessity, the Home Guard became increasingly valuable to the British Army as regular soldiers became scarce on the home islands. For this reason, Churchill, as well as many Members of Parliament who also belonged to Home Guard battalions, supported the Home Guard in its quest for a combat role, though this part of the Home Guard’s history is only briefly mentioned by MacKenzie. Primary sources indicate that Home Guards relished the idea of fighting the Germans and did not quietly accept War Office plans for using the Home Guard for guarding bridges or simply reporting the presence of Germans. The question over guerrilla warfare or static defence was never completely settled. The War Office always pushed for static defence, with units fighting to their last bullet, while many Guards, as well as their political supporters, clearly favoured partisan warfare behind the lines after a German invasion. MacKenzie does, however, illustrate that the Home Guard formed as a result of local initiative, but survived and sometimes thrived because of government support. However, when local enthusiasm waned, such as the removal of the threat of German invasion after the Allied invasion of Normandy, government support could not keep it alive. From a non-academic perspective, A. G. Street’s From Dusk Till Dawn: The Sedgebury Wallop Home Guard Platoon Prepare for War (1989) records the history to the Home Guard from personal experience. In this text, Street has recorded the story of the Home Guard from its birth in 1940,through its teething troubles and adolescence, to the mature and efficient force that it quickly became. As a farmer and an enthusiastic country Home Guard, Street recounts the story of the Sudbury Wallop Platoon in the Wessex district. According to Street, the force itself was an example of British improvisation, and every one of the early volunteers, officers and men alike, improvised in various ways to give his unit the highest possible efficiency in the shortest possible time, in expectation of the universally predicted invasion by German military forces. As a non-academic, first person account, Streets text is unashamedly biased in favour of the Home Guard’s role in World War Two, however, compared to many academic research pieces, which tend to focus on the problems, assumed in competencies, and believed ineffectuality in the event of an invasion, this text redresses the balance and avoids focussing overwhelmingly on the inabilities of the Home Guard. Addressing the history of the Home Guard from the perspective of photographic evidence, David Carroll’s research in The Home Guard recalls the activities of the auxiliary force otherwise known to the British public as Dads Army. The book draws on the early days of the Local Defence Volunteers from the moment when Anthony Eden broadcast an appeal, to the official stand-down of the Home Guard in 1944. This title evokes memories of World War Two in a domestic setting and asserts life on the Home Front from the perspective of those left behind to defend it. Carroll approaches the historiography of the Home Guard by the analysis of more than 200 photographs of Home Guard duties. After a brief introduction to the Home Guard, this 125 page paperback book displays page after page of photographs and detailed annotations showing the Home Guard in its different forms and fulfilling many different functions. While not the dissecting analysis expected of academic research, this methodology allows the historian to review the history of the Home Guard from a form of primary evidence otherwise unobtainable. One of the most influential historiographies of the Home Guard, with regard to its efficiency in the event of a significant invasion, is Norman Long mate’s If Britain Had Fallen (2004). The question of what would have occurred if Germany had invaded the British Isles has long preoccupied writers, but few have dealt with the subject as comprehensively and effectively as Long mate. If Britain Had Fallen attempted to cover every phase of the subject, from the Germane-invasion manoeuvring and preparations, and the landing of troops, to the German seizure of power. Long mate has endeavoured to present contemplation of what may have occurred following an attempted invasion by the German army, and how Britain may have been able to repel such an attack. Under the supposition of the Luftwaffe defeating the Royal Air Force and winning the Battle of Britain in the summer and early fall of1940, Long mate provides an in-depth recount of what might have happened if this â€Å"counterfactual† event had occurred: that the Germans would have successfully launched Operation Sea lion in September 1940 and occupied Britain. As a result, the British Isles would not have become the â€Å"unsinkable aircraft carrier† from which the Allies could launch their own invasion of Fasting Europa, and the history of both World War Two and the world would have been drastically different. Although other authors have written about a successful invasion and occupation of Britain, these works cover a single phase, the preparations, landing, or subsequent campaign. Long mate, however, has attempted to address all aspects of a successful invasion and the defence strategies in place to counterattack them. Only three of the seventeen chapters are fictional, and although it is uncertain what actual effect the Home Guard volunteers would have had on repelling an invasion, Long mate has addressed their value in a counterstroke campaign, and during the initial invasion stages. Although Long mate has drawn on documents collected by the British Broadcasting Company (BBC), which produced television film of the same name, the key to this alternate history is Goring and Hitler’s decision during the Battle of Britain to continue attacking Fighter Command and British radar stations until German forces defeated the RAF, rendering it unable to stop a cross-channel invasion. The Nazi leaders realized they needed air superiority over the English Channel for a successful invasion. However, they in fact ordered the Luftwaffe to bomb cities, especially London, in early September 1940, a critical decision that gave the RAF breathing room to recoup its losses and prevent the Luftwaffe from establishing air superiority. As a result, the Germans postponed Sea lion several times, finally cancelling the operation (Cox, 1977). There are only two blatant criticisms of such an approach to historiography. While valuable in the sense of a hypothetical, this form of historiography reneges on crucial factual accounts of the capabilities of the Home Guard. Additionally, although the author discusses his references in bibliographical essay for each chapter, Long mate provides no notes to identify the sources of specific passages. However, his acknowledgement that, despite the presence of the defensive and committed Home Guard, Britain would probably have been successfully invaded should the English Channel have been secured illustrates the continued awareness that the Home Guard provided no adequate defence in a full-scale invasion scenario. Regimental records, while not complete, do assist in the analysis of the Home Guard during the Second World War. In addition to records commemorating decorations awarded to Home Guard volunteers, there are also primary sources in the form of newspaper accounts, particularly with regard to civil defence during blitzkrieg incidents, andante-invasion records to the defence strategies of the British Isles. Acknowledging that Britain was existing during a time of extreme propaganda, where civilians were frequently and routinely warned that ‘walls have ears’, newspaper accounts of civil defence can only be relied upon to a limited degree. Morale in Britain would have severely suffered had the media regularly reported, correctly or incorrectly, that the civil defence measures, including the Home Guard, were in some way failing. However, the anti-invasion records provide something of asocial history of the pillboxes and other roofed defence structures which are so widespread over great tracts of the landscape. Many lie in remote locations, overgrown, and with easy access through unblocked entrances and other openings, and can be readily seen as providing ideal sites where misdeeds and accidents might happen. The database records one wartime tragedy: a pillbox at Kenmore in Perth and Kinross was the scene of a fatal Home Guard shooting of a tramp who did not respond to a sentrys challenge. First comes the understanding of the intensity of the militarisation of Britain, in particular during the Second World War. In particular, an appreciation of the structure of the anti-invasion defences of 1940-41 shows not a few badly sited pillboxes manned by gallant, octogenarian Home Guards with pikestaffs, which is still the popular mythology, but an intensely planned and implemented defence strategy, involving a totality of defence over the entire landscape that can only be appreciated when the original documentation is analysed. It is true to say that there was not one square foot of the United Kingdom that was not included in some military or civil defence scheme. By the summer of 1941, when the defences had reached their most complete state, most of Britain had been planned, measured, and armed for defence roads were blocked, fields were strewn with obstacles, bridges were mined, factories, railways, airfields, and ports were protected, the coastline, towns and villages, the length and breadth of the country bristled with fortifications and with troops and weapons to man them. If the Germans had invaded in June 1940, then there would have been few defences, and even fewer weapons, to stop them. By the end of the year, however, and into 1941, the situation had changed dramatically. Even if the Germans had managed to cross the Channel, they would have had a very hard battle to fight themselves ashore. Records relating to the Home Guard volunteers frequently include detailed lists of defence works with the Home Guard units who were responsible for manning them, often with maps. However, contrary to the popular view that the majority of Home Guard regimental records were destroyed, it is imperative to understand that certain aspects of World War Two were only semi-documented. It has also been ascertained that the Home Guard deliberately set out to be a â€Å"paperless army†, and thus its records are relatively sparse. (Lord,1999). It is, therefore, necessary to analyse as many reliable sources as possible, and hence literatures, such as Carroll’s The Home Guard, which rely on non-orthodox historiographies have value within this period of research. When analysing events from an era where spies abounded and there was the continual fear of the enemy gaining access to valuable material evidence, it is important to not disregard unusual or unofficial evidence without extensive consideration. Records suggest that the relationship between the Home Guard and active army differed from the American practice. While the U.S. War Department insisted on the distinctness of State Guard uniforms, British Home Guards were soon required to wear the standard British khaki uniform. With the heavy threat of invasion in the early years of the war, the training schedule of the Home Guard was far more intense than that of their American counterparts. Home Guards were expected to train 48hours each month, exhaustive when compared to the infrequent and limited training required of American State Guardsmen. The American State Guardsmen complained when the federal government replaced rifles with shotguns, however, the British Home Guards found themselves issued an odd assortment of cheap weapons, including homemade Molotov Cocktails, sticky bombs and self-igniting phosphorous grenades, designed more to give each man a role rather than a real weapon. The lack of effective weapons caused Home Guard supporters to question whether the War Office truly expected the Home Guard to provide creditable opposition to a German landing (Calder, 1969). Although most Britons realized that British industry and finances were hard pressed to arm all active forces, some suspected that the Home Guards role had more to do with channelling enthusiasm and creating propaganda, than in providing real security. Official and unofficial primary sources indicate that the inclusion and official acceptance of the Home Guard was neither immediately nor warmly embraced by all in the Home Guard or in the government. Many of the initial enthusiasts of the Home Guard had served in the Spanish Militia during the Spanish Civil War and hoped to see the Home Guard become a similar leftist militia of British workers. The War Office, by gaining control over the Home Guard, effected the exclusion of radicals on the left as well as the right. The inclusion of the Home Guard into His Majestys forces never placed the Home Guard on equal status with the army. Originally, Home Guard units functioned without commissioned officer or NCO ranks. Instead, leaders held authority only by their position. As a result, discipline remained almost wholly voluntary. Many in the Home Guard preferred the situation as it was, but records indicate that the movement for greater control and efficiency led tithe introduction of ranks. However, whereas American State Guard officers held comm

Essay on Toni Morrisons Beloved - How We Define Ourselves

How We Define Ourselves in Beloved  Ã‚     Ã‚   The idea of how we define ourselves is a topic that has much force in the novel Beloved by Toni Morrison.   Two of the characters in the novel have strongly opposite ideas of defining their own â€Å"selves†.   Baby Suggs displays a very healthy sense of self, completely based on only who she is as a person, and not relying on any other person to assist her in her definition.   She is an independent person and loves her own â€Å"self† greatly.   Sethe, on the other hand, has an unhealthy sense of self because who she is is strongly dependent on her interactions and relationships with her children. The above is excerpt is provided to indicate the focus of the essay. The complete essay begins below: The journey towards finding one’s â€Å"self† is a long and arduous one, twisting and turning in every direction.   The destination is a personal identity -- a definition of who one is, independent of anyone else. Some people find a straight path that leads them directly to the discovery of their â€Å"selves†.   Other people take the road that has many switch-backs and obstacles to overcome, but eventually these people make it to the destination of â€Å"self† as well.   There are still others who get lost along the way.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The process of finding one’s â€Å"self† is strongly reliant upon our interactions with other people.   From the beginning, as infants, to when we are still small children, we have no idea who we are or what our relationship to the world is.   Our perceptions of the world are through the eyes of our parents or guardians and other adults who try to teach us and show us the world.   They instill in us their own ideas of right and wrong, good and bad.   As we grow, our peers have much influence over h... ...t our own sense of "self".   We never stop learning and experiencing new things, so our definitions of "self" are constantly being challenged and sometimes altered.   However, when we begin to rely solely upon other people to know who we are, our "self" is no longer our own.   A true sense of "self" is responsive to one's interactions and relationships with people, but defined only by one's own mind and heart, independent of others.   The road towards personal identity is long.   Several people may help us out along the way, hydrating us as needed; carrying us as needed.   But, in the end, we hopefully cross the finish line on our own. Works Cited 1.   Kubitcheck, M.D.   Toni Morrison: A Critical Companion.   London: Greenwood Press, 1998. 2.   Morrison, Toni.   Beloved.   New York: Plume, 1987. 3.   One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest. 4.   Secrets and Lies.      

Emergency Room Overutilization Essay -- Emergency Room Misuse

Emergency room over utilization is one of the leading causes of today’s ever increasing healthcare costs. The majority of the patients seen in emergency rooms across the nation are Medicaid recipients, for non-emergent reasons. The federal government initiated Medicaid Managed Care programs to offer better healthcare delivery, adequately compensate providers and reduce healthcare costs. Has Medicaid Managed Care addressed the issues and solved the problem? The answer is ‘Yes’ and ‘No’. Throughout the early 1980’s and 1990’s the Federal Medicaid program was challenged by rapidly rising Medicaid program costs and an increasing number of uninsured population. One of the primary reasons for the overall increase in healthcare costs is the over utilization of hospital emergency rooms. This is a direct result of not having a primary care physician and/or family doctor who is the main source of healthcare delivery for an individual and/or entire family The traditional Medicaid program does not offer, or require, recipients to choose a primary care physician like, its counterpart, Medicare. Medicare still operates under the traditional fee-for-service methodology and does not require beneficiaries to identify and primary provider as well as having direct access to specialty services. This allows a cost sharing approach which results in higher out-of-pocket expenses and does not cover drug or prescription benefits. In an effort to offer better healthcare services and access as well as reduce costs the federal government allowed the States to turn to managed care and proposed a mandatory statewide implementation for the Medicaid population. In order to make major changes like these, states have to request waivers of Medicaid regulatio... ...sive.(Practice Trends)." Clinical Psychiatry News 33.2 (Feb 2005): 88(1). Academic OneFile. Thomson Gale. University of Phoenix. Retrieved February 25, 2013 from: . 5. Roohan, Patrick J., Anarella, Joseph P., & Gesten, Foster C. (July-August 2004) Quality oversight and improvement in Medicaid managed care.(Quality Assurance Reporting Requirements ). In Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 10, p321(9). 6. Wang, Cheng, Villar, Maria Elena, Mulligan, Deborah A., & Hansen, Toran. (Nov 2005) Cost and utilization analysis of a Pediatric Emergency Department Diversion Project. In Pediatrics, 116, p1075(5). Retrieved July 11, 2013, from InfoTrac OneFile via Thomson Gale:

School Life and College Life

Correction in marks, f any, should be communicated to the office of CEO in the format prescribed within ten working days after the day of examination of the last theory paper. The marks secured by student in the test examinations before and after addressing the refinance shall be displayed on the department notice board. Page 12 lit) Absentee examination a. For GU Programmer under autonomy Students who remain absent in a Test-I and or Test II examination will be subjected to absentee test after Testes as per the academic calendar.The absentee examination would be for 15 Marks only. A student who remains absent for both Test-I and Test-II would be evaluated for 15 marks only and will lose 15 marks. This provision Is made only for situations In which the absence is either due to the student representing the college in an academic/ co-curricular and extracurricular activities at University r country level or due to reason of illness, death of a near kin, attendance of state or national level competitive exam, placement activities and other circumstances beyond control of the student.To avail this provision, the student is required to apply to the HOOD with recommendation from Course Coordinator with relevant documents. It is the discretion of the HOOD and Course Coordinator to consider application and decide the mode of examination. No student can avail of this provision for both the Test examinations in any one course in a Semester. B. For PIG Programmer under autonomy Students who remain absent in a Test-I and/or Test II examination will be subjected to absentee test after Test-I and/ or Test II within 10 working days of the end of test examination.This provision is made only for situations in which the absence is either due to the student representing the college in an academic/ co- curricular and extracurricular activities at University, State or country level or due to reason of illness, death of a near kin, attendance of state or national level competitive e xam, placement activities and other circumstances beyond control of the student. To Vail of this provision, the student is required to apply to the HOOD with recommendation from Course Coordinator with relevant documents.It is the discretion of the HOOD and Course Coordinator to consider application and decide the mode of examination. No student can avail of this provision for both the Test examinations in any one course in a Semester. ‘v) Assessment of Internal marks for theory courses Test-I – 15 marks Test-II – 15 marks Attendance – 4 marks Teacher's assessments – Two assessments of 3 marks each (The mode of teachers' assessment shall be declared by individual course teacher on the dates specified in the Academic Calendar). Total continuous assessment marks for theory course – 40 marks.Teachers Assessment a. B. C. D. Teacher's assessment of students' performance of 6 marks shall be done on the basis of modes such as home assignments, tutor ials, open book tests, seminars, group discussions, projects, quizzes etc. The course coordinator shall declare the mode(s) chosen for each course, within the date prescribed by the Dean Academics. In case a course is being taught by more Page 13 than one subject teacher, the modes for teacher's assessment may be declared by the respective teacher, section wise.A student who skips teacher's assessment or a part thereof shall be awarded zero marks under the respective head. Vi) Assessment of continuous assessment of marks for practical courses A student shall be evaluated for his/her academic performance in a practical course on the basis of continuous evaluation and End Semester Practical Examination. Vii) Marking for continuous evaluation of practical courses may be done based on the following parameters a. Journal completion b. Performance in each practical c.Internal Practical Examination d. Viva-Voce Total marks for continuous evaluation of practical courses: 25 marks. The cours e coordinator in consultation with Chairman Board of Studies and the respective course teacher shall declare the allocation of marks in the parameters as applicable within the date prescribed in the academics calendar. In case of performance oriented practical, the evaluation shall be done on the basis to performance in practical examination and viva-voce/bob]active test.Mode of examination for non-performance type of practical shall be declared by the course coordinator in the beginning of the session. Type of practical course I. E. Performance type or non performance type shall be decided by the respective ASS. The seminar shall be evaluated through the quality of work carried out, the report submission and presentation's as per the guidelines prescribed by the respective BOSS from time to time. Project work shall be evaluated by mid-term seminar's, the quality of work carried out, project report submission and the viva-voce examination.Notwithstanding contained in above, any spec ific norms in respect of examination, criterion of passing, results, valuation, grading, discipline, award of degree, attendance will be prepared by the respective departmental faculty board, approved by BOSS and Academic Council, if required. Iii) Attendance: The attendance of the students in theory classes should be encouraged. 4 marks are allotted for attendance. The distribution of Attendance marks is as given in Table 1 below. Table 1: Distribution of marks on Attendance S. No. 1 23 4 Attendance % ;=75 or ;75 or or ; 65 Awarded Marks 4 3 2 1 a.All the students are expected to be present in every lecture, tutorial, practical, NC / INS / SSP / Games ; Sports / Yoga scheduled for them. Attendance will be closely monitored during a semester as per the guidelines. Page 14 b. If a student is continuously absent from the classes for more than four seeks without informing the Course Coordinator, the Coordinator shall immediately bring it to the notice of First Year Coordinator/ the Hea d of the concerned department as the case may be and they in turn will inform the same to the Office of Dean Academics. . A student must have a minimum attendance of 60 % of the total number of classes including lectures/ tutorials, held in a course individually in order to become eligible for appearing Test I and Test II examinations in such course's, failing which he/she will be declared not eligible for appearing in the said examination in such course's and will be awarded zero marks.Attendance granted to the student for the period of the related activity/ event shall not be considered while calculating minimum attendance. Minimum physical presence of the student of the total number of classes including lectures/ tutorials, held in a course is compulsory for being eligible for appearing Test I and Test II examinations. D.The names of the students who have remained absent, for more than 25% of the actual classes held in a course will be intimated by the Course Coordinator himself on the last teaching day of each month of the respective semester, to the students in the lass with written intimation to the HOOD / First Year Coordinator, who will arrange to consolidate the list for all such students for all the courses and display it on the notice board of the department with an intimation to Dean Academics. E. A student must have an overall 75 % attendance of the total number of classes including lectures/ tutorials and practical. F.Student is not permitted to appear for the End Semester Examination if the shortfall of attendance exists. His/her registration for that semester will be treated as cancelled, and he/she shall be awarded ‘Z' grade in that semester. This grade shall appear in the grade card till the successful completion to course requirements in that semester. Ix) Connotation to Attendance: Those students who have more than 75% attendance for the period other than their medical leave be considered for connotation of attendance provided their o verall attendance in a course including the period of illness does not fall below 60%.A student has to apply for leave on medical grounds to the Head of concerned department and such application shall be accompanied with a medical certificate from a registered medical practitioner and endorsed by parent's or guardian. However the decision in this matter will be finally taken by the Principal. Records keeping: All the records of attendance in Test Examinations, Question papers, valued answer sheets, summary of marks sheets, and display of marks should be properly maintained for academic monitoring.

Family Planning Methods

TOPIC: COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE ACCEPTANCE OF MODERN FAMILY PLANNING AMONG HAUSA, YORUBA, AND IGBO IN AGEGE COMMUNITY, LAGOS STATE. ABSTRACT The study will be carry out to get a comparative study on the acceptance of modern family planning among Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo’s in Agege community, lagos. 150 respondents will be needed for the study, 50 respondents from each settlement. The target group for this research will be women of child bearing age. Data will be collated, analyse, by using descriptive statistics and Chi square to test for the hypothesesCHAPTER ONE 1. 0 INTRODUCTION 1. 1BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Right from creation, multiplication of man had been as a result of reproduction. However giving birth to young ones is the term associated to this and this is for posterity being the desire of everyone. Through scientific reproductive research over the years, man has evolved knowledge of putting consideration and calculation to population by means of family planning becaus e if this is not in place, man may end up in killing and eating each other as a result of over population in the absence of sufficient resources.Family planning is the process of having children by choice and not by chance that is determining when to have children and the use of birth control and other techniques to implement such plans. Other stechniques commonly used include sexual education, prevention and management of sexually transmitted infections, preconception, counselling and management. (Etuk S. K and EKanem D. , 2003). Family planning sometimes used as a synonym for the use of birth control, most usually applied to a female-male couple who wish to limit the number of children they have and or to control the timing of pregnancy.Family planning services are defined as educational, comprehensive medical or social activities which enable individuals, including minors to determine freely the number, spacing of their children and to select the means by which this may be achiev ed (Royce R. A, 2006) There is no doubting the fact that in today’s reality, raising quality children requires significant amount of resources: time, social, financial and environmental planning can help assure that resources are available else, it would be another potential additional threat to the parent and society at large.This is the essence of family planning (Paine et al, 2001) Experts have always insisted that waiting until the mother is at least 18years old before trying to have children improves maternal and child health. Also, if additional children are desired after a child is born; it is healthier for the mother and the child to wait at least 2years after the previous birth before attempting to conceive (but not more than 5years).After a miscarriage or abortion, it is healthier to wait for at least 6 months (Delano G. 1990). Osakue S. O (2010) highlighted that Nigeria being the most populous country in Africa with more than 140 million people also has a high annu al rate of population growth (3. 5%) And a high total fertility rate of 6. 0 live births per women. Additionally, the country has relatively high levels of infant mortality of 104 infant deaths per 1,000 live births.